The Effect of the Cold War on Stem Education

The Effect of the Cold War Arm’s Race on STEM Occupations during the Cold War Ketib Oldiais Mr. Kelley IB Asian and European History HL 00450- A. Plan of Investigation 5 marks During the Cold War, the struggle for power between the communists of Soviet Russia and the pro-democracy politicians of the United States escalated in numerous proxy wars, acts of espionage, and potential nuclear warfare. Behind it all however, the Cold War was a breeding ground for competition in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.From the 1960s, upon the spark of the Space Race with the Soviet Launch of Sputnik, to the 1990s with the reunion of East and West Germany, the Cold War was a period of increase in occupations related to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Using statistical data during the Cold War’s time frame related to this increase, we can ask the question—to what extent did the Cold War effect the number of occupations related to science, technology, engineering and mathematics?Answering such a question will provide us with the necessary details in understanding why and how the increase of such occupations occurred specifically during the Cold War compared to other historical eras. For the sake of keeping this research paper within the word count limit, the term â€Å"science, technology, engineering, and mathematics†, will be shortened to STEM. The purpose of this paper is to examine the extent to which STEM related variables of the Cold War such as the space race, acts of espionage, proxy wars, as well as the improvement of military weapons, affected the statistics regarding STEM related occupations at the time.To achieve the purpose of providing an answer to the research question, I will utilize statistical data from before, during, and after the Cold War. This data will be presented in such a way that they may be compared to each other, providing the understanding that there was indeed an increase and decrease of such STEM related occupations. After establishing this, such fluctuations in statistical data will be attributed to Cold War events at the time of the fluctuation. A large proportion of the statistical data utilized will be from government statistical agencies and university polls.By achieving my purpose, the reader may come to understand the role STEM related variables and occupations in global affairs, and the extent to which they effect B. Summary of Evidence 4 marks Throughout much of the Cold War, competition between pro-Democracy countries and their Communist counterparts was tense. The Soviets and their proxies were determined to expand their influence, the United States was just as determined to stop them. STEM related resources were almost always credited with decisive victories, whether in espionage or wartime.Science and technology, as Daniel Yankovich, a social scientist from Harvard University had once stated, â€Å"were almost universally credited wit h a decisive role in gaining victory in war, prosperity in peace, enhancing national security, improving our health, and enriching the quality of life†. Throughout much of the 1950s, the United States felt, and appeared, as though it had the upper hand and prowess in STEM related fields. This was still the mind set throughout the decade, even with the introduction of Soviet made nuclear bombs.By 1957 however, America had been beaten to the space race. With the launch of the Soviet Sputnik, America’s comfort in the idea that they were the leaders of this particular field was shattered. Quick on its feet, the United States immediately began pushing effort for a larger STEM taskforce. Congress began focusing in on funding the American education system, and the result was a huge growth in STEM related occupations. By the 1980s, there were approximately 2. 5 million employees in STEM related fields (National Science Board, Science and Engineering Indicators 2008, Figure 3-1) .This increase in public interest in the STEM related fields, both on the local public and national level, was very clearly a product of the rivalry between the Soviet Union and America. Both sides clearly understood the power of having the best possible weaponry, something that could only be attained with the brightest minds. Gone were the days were having the most men would win the battle; the Cold War was an era of scientific and technological progress. Even in the American education system, trends in doctorate degrees were evident enough of the public’s enthusiasm in participating in a new, fruitful field.From 1971 to 1985, the number of engineering and engineering technology master’s and doctorate degrees increased from 16,443 to 21,555 degrees. (National Science Board, Science and Engineering Indicators 2008, Figure 3-1). It is very evident that the American people were just as concerned about national security and patriotism at the time than the politicians were . From 1950, there were less than approximately 500,000 STEM employees. By 1960, this figure had increased to approximately 1. 25 million, by 1970 at least 1. 75 million, and by 1980 about 2. million ((National Science Board, Science and Engineering Indicators 2008, Figure 3-1). (Refer to appendix 1 for a more accurate line graph of this trend. ) It is important to note however, that all these growth spurts were sparked by the technological, scientific, engineering, and mathematical advancements that both the Soviet Union and the United States accomplished. It was during the Cold War that atomic energy, the most powerful energy that could possibly be harnessed with the technology at the time, came under heavy research.Both Soviet and American physicists and engineers strived to construct powerful atomic bombs. The soviets went on to construct an even more powerful bomb, the hydrogen bomb, and even detonated the most powerful hydrogen bomb in history, the AN602 HB â€Å"Tsar Bombaâ €  in 1961. (Gerovitch: ‘Mathematical Machines’ of the Cold War: Soviet Computing, American Cybernetics and Ideological Disputes in the Early 1950s page 54)The bomb triggered even more efforts by the United States in improving their aerospace, aeronautical, and national security fields.The internet also came into being in the early 1970s, originally intended as a security network in keeping classified nuclear codes top secret. Satellite technology was also at its peak during the Cold War, the USSR having sent the Sputnik in 1957, and America’s Explorer 1 the following year. It was also during the Cold War that the United States sent the first man onto the man, Neil Armstrong, on July 20, 1969. (Gerovitch: ‘Mathematical Machines’ of the Cold War: Soviet Computing, American Cybernetics and Ideological Disputes in the Early 1950s page 53)It is not a coincidence that the increasing STEM occupation trend during the Cold War occurred at the height of th e â€Å"cold† conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union. The two were rival powers, both competing ideologically, and ultimately, in engineering, science, technology, and math. This competition resulted in huge advances in the STEM fields, many of which still hold a great deal of impact today, such as nuclear weaponry, satellite technology, espionage, and space travel.This research study will aim at answering the question, to what extent did the Cold War effect the number of occupations related to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics? By answering this question, you, as the reader, may come to understand the implications the Cold War had on STEM occupations at the time, as well as the value STEM occupations held in shaping what the Cold War was and ultimately, the present day. C. Evaluation of Sources 3 marks Researching this topic, I utilized a number of resources.Of all my resources, I relied greatly on the American National Science Board’s Science and Engineering Indicators, 2008 document, which provided statistics on the growth of STEM related occupations from 1950 until 2000. There were a number of other resources I could rely on, but I felt that this gave the most accurate and credible description of the Cold War effect on STEM fields through a critical, statistical analysis. The resource itself is held credible through the fact that the National Science Board is the single government organization that represents the broad U. S. cience and engineering community. The members of this board are appointed by the President of the United States of America, and are approved by the Senate. The statistics presented in the document, Science and Engineering Indicators, 2008, utilized for this particular Internal Assessment is an accumulation of statistical surveys conducted from 1950 until 2000. Another resource that I found extremely useful in producing an accurate portrait for analysis was ‘Mathematical Machines†™ of the Cold War: Soviet Computing, American Cybernetics and Ideological Disputes in the Early 1950s by MIT’s Slava Gerovitch.The document explored an interesting phenomenon, the effect of the Cold War on scientific, technological, engineering, and mathematical growth, from two different sides—the U. S. A. , and the U. S. S. R.. Gerovitch’s document carefully explores the application of STEM products from both sides of the Cold War, analyzing such applications from both the Soviet and American perspective. The statistics mentioned in this Internal Assessment can all be found in the appendix, all of which are derived from the American National Science Board’s Science and Engineering Indicators, 2008 statistics document.The resources utilized in this research paper are credible, coming from both government agencies as well as research done by professors from top tier American universities. It is important to note that statistics can only go so far in pro ving the answer to the research question I have presented. Given the fact that it is not difficult to fabricate such numbers, I understand that there is a limitation of the scope of this research, whose parameters are set specifically at establishing a relation between a statistical increase of STEM occupations and Cold War tension.In order to fully understand the scope, content, and limitations of this Internal Assessment, one must assume that all forms of statistical data and historical documents utilized as resources, are in fact, true and credible forms of data. D. Analysis 6 marks The Cold War definitely affected the rate at which STEM related occupations grew from the 1950s to the mid 1990s. Growth of STEM related occupations was merely a symptom of the tension between the United States and the USSR.Both the United States and the USSR were competing for the position as the head technological global power, a position that at the time was, and still is, a symbol of national secu rity and foreign dominance. As Paul Josephson, a Soviet technological historian, noted in his research, the more Stalin demanded a ‘great transformation of nature’ the more industrial and technological research projects ensued. Despite the fact that the statistics did indeed show a growth of nearly 6. 5% from the 1950s to the mid 1990s, it is important to note the environment at which STEM related occupations grew.Although both competitors, the United States and the USSR both demanded an increase in high tech defense systems, some forms of STEM related research were deemed â€Å"unnecessary† to the cause, and as a result, were left unfunded. The lack of funds literally suppressed such research. As Slava Gerovitch puts it, campaigns against such research â€Å"destroyed personal careers and closed whole areas of research; in a number of disciplines, the most dogmatic of trends prevailed, imposing narrow conceptual frameworks and stifling creative thought. It is i nterpretations of historians such as Slava Gerovitch that it is important to understand that, although the demand for STEM related research was great, it was limited to STEM related research that fit the goals of the two competitors. Physiology, medicine, cybernetics, and genetics, for example, were suppressed during Stalin’s reign, fields that were deemed to idealistic and too Western. Genetics, for example, was labeled a â€Å"whore of capitalism† by Soviet ideologists.It was these STEM fields, fields that were far too close to clashing with Soviet political ideology, that STEM related research did not grow. The Soviet Union wanted to â€Å"surpass† Western research, not â€Å"criticize† it. Fields such as physiology, cybernetics, and genetics, were far too ideologically charged, meaning they invoked some level of philosophical, ethical, and political clash, and had very little to do with technological prowess at the time. Fields such as physics, inform ation technology systems, mathematics, and physical engineering were the most desired.Physics brought the USSR their first atomic bomb as well as their, and the world’s, first man in low earth orbit, information technology systems brought the soviet MESM, the first operating stored program computer in continental Europe, and engineering brought the construction of Soviet missiles and Nuclear submarines. All these fields and their products were â€Å"appealing† to the Soviet administration and its ideologists, specifically because they flourished even under a totalitarian system, and gave power to the Soviet Union during the Cold War’s arms race.The growth in the United States had a similar characteristic with that of the USSR. Within STEM growth, the life science fields (biology, genetics, etc. ) grew the least. This characteristic however, resulted from lack of interest in the field, unlike the Soviet Union’s deliberate banning of such fields. This lack of interest was a direct of product of the lack of funding. Federal and military funding during the Cold War was primarily aimed at the physical science fields (physics, chemistry, technology, physical engineering, etc. , as they were the forms of measurement in global power. It was because of this lack of funding that the United States public lost interest. From a practical point of view, it is a logical conclusion to make, given the economic conditions of the time. Physical sciences were where the most attainable and lucrative forms of income existed, and it was only natural for the average American to head into a financially attractive field.As a conclusive analysis, it is not difficult to recognize that both the United States and the USSR experienced remarkable growth in STEM related occupations as a result of their competitive nature in the arm’s race during the Cold War. The term â€Å"STEM† encompasses fields ranging from the most technical of fields as nuclear physics all the way down to the most ideologically and philosophically charged fields as biology. As a result, to answer the question, â€Å"To what extent did the Cold War affect the growth of STEM related occupations? one must interpret the whole definition of the term STEM, recognize its parameters, and understand that even with the growth of STEM related occupations, there was a slower, declined, or even non-existent, growth in politically charged and â€Å"uninteresting† fields such as that of the life sciences, whether politically induced or because of lack of interest. E. Conclusion 2 marks In conclusion, the statistics presented by the National Science Foundation of the United States clearly shows an increase in STEM related occupations from the 1950s to the mid 1990s.Occupations that experienced the most dramatic increase included physicists, and engineers. Upon the introduction of computers and other computational tools, mathematics and information technology syste ms also experienced an increase. Based on when these increasing trends occurred, and other events that occurred along those times, it is not difficult to see a correlation between the positive growth trends and the tense, competitive events that occurred between the USSR and the United States.From nuclear bombs, the space race, and computational and information technologies, the USSR and the United States competed against each other to gain the position as the leading global power. And given the nature of the competition, the only method of attaining such a position was to have the top scientists, engineers, mathematicians, and information technology specialists. With a sudden demand for such occupations, STEM occupations, it was inevitable for an increase to occur. But one must also be aware that with great demand for certain STEM occupations came a great level of ignorance for others.Biology and genetics for example, experienced the least growth. Such was the case in the United St ates and the USSR, although the circumstances leading up to the phenomenon were very different. Biology and genetics did not thrive in the United States for inadequate funding and lack of public interest, while the same situation held true in the USSR due to their overtly philosophically and politically charged nature. As a result, to answer the question, â€Å"To what extent did the cold war effect the number of STEM occupations from the 1950s to the 1990s? , one must understand that although the Cold War did increase the amount of STEM occupations, it also brought upon a certain level of negligence towards other fields, such as biology and genetics. But even more important than answering the question, the implications of this study are clear—that STEM related occupations effect the world to a very high degree. The course of the Cold War was literally paved by these STEM occupations, and even in the real world today, STEM occupations shape world affairs. Everything from a l aptop to an atomic bomb, are all products of STEM occupations.As a result, it is important that we understand that the scope of this internal assessment is not merely limited to answering the core question of this internal assessment, but to assess the degree to which STEM related occupations play in world affairs, both in the past and present. F. Sources and Word Limit 3 marks Websites â€Å"The Cold War and the Early Space Race, an Article from History in Focus. †Ã‚  Institute of Historical Research | The National Centre for History. Web. 12 Feb. 2012. . This resource gave me a very general idea of the impact the Cold War had on the space race that occurred between the United States and the Soviet Union. It did not give me very specific details such as statistics, but it did give me general parameters of the research I was going to be working with. â€Å"Engineering: Underground Cold War – TIME. †Ã‚  Breaking News, Analysis, Politics, Blogs, News Photos, Video , Tech Reviews – TIME. com. Web. 12 Feb. 2012. . * On this website, a more indebt account on the role engineering played in the cold war was defined.What the first website offered, this gave a more accurate portrayal. The parameters of the research were much more clearly defined in this article. â€Å"Top Ed-Tech Trends of 2011: STEM Education's Sputnik Moment. †Ã‚  Hack Education. Web. 12 Feb. 2012. . * This website gave me a defined view of the role education played in the Cold War. The 2nd website noted the role of education as a determining factor in the trends regarding engineering, and this article provided me the opportunity to look at the bigger picture of education.Viswanathan, Vidya B. â€Å"Cold War Conflict Prompted Education Arms Race | News | The Harvard Crimson. †Ã‚  Harvard News | The Harvard Crimson. Web. 12 Feb. 2012. . * I would not say that this article was extremely crucial to the investigation, but the technical writing involved in presenti ng its topic, which is very closely related to mine, gave me some ideas on the lexicon and syntax my investigation should be presented as. Measurement and Statistics on Science and Technology: 1920 to the Present – Benoit Godin. †Ã‚  Google Books. Web. 12 Feb. 2012. ;http://books. google. com/books? id=ojC8o0YKZFcC;. * This article was useful in the sense that it provided some very useful statistics regarding STEM research from 1920 until 2000. Given the fact that my investigation relies very heavily on statistics, this website/online book, proved very useful. â€Å"How the Cold War Was Won  « Engineering Radio. †Ã‚  Engineering Radio. Web. 12 Feb. 2012. ;http://www. engineeringradio. us/blog/2010/10/how-the-cold-war-was-won/;. This website offered a podcast by a group of engineers discussing the Cold War and the role engineering played. It is definitely interesting to see the topic from an engineer’s standpoint. â€Å"Pioneering Rocket Engineer Develop ed Cold War Missiles, Competed in X PRIZE | UTSanDiego. com. †Ã‚  San Diego News, Local, California and National News | UTSanDiego. com. Web. 12 Feb. 2012. ;http://www. utsandiego. com/news/2010/oct/08/pioneering-rocket-engineer-developed-cold-war/;. * This website provided examples Cold War technologies that essentially promoted the â€Å"coldness† of the Cold War.Some of the examples provided were explored and mentioned in my investigation when addressing the factors of defining the â€Å"coldness† of the Cold War. NebraskaStudies. Org. Web. 12 Feb. 2012. ;http://www. nebraskastudies. org/0900/frameset_reset. html? http://www. nebraskastudies. org/0900/stories/0901_0105. html;. * I would not say that this resource was extremely crucial to the investigation, but it did give me insight as to how the American public viewed the importance of engineering and other STEM related fields during the Cold War.Books/Documents Hamblin, Jacob Darwin. â€Å"Arming Mother Nat ure: How Modern Science and the Cold War Gave Birth to Catastrophic Environmentalism. † Diss. 2011. Web. * This document gave examples of the implications Cold War technology had on society, and overall, the friction between the Soviets and the Americans, as well as the implications placed upon proxy nations used between the two both in the past and in the present day. Imhotep, Edward Jones. â€Å"Disciplining Technology: Electronic Reliability, Cold-War Military Culture and the Topside Ionogram. † Diss.Harvard University, 2000. Harvard Department of History of Science. Web. 12 Feb. 2012. * Dr. Imhotep of Harvard wrote this document on how technological advancements were â€Å"disciplined† or utilized, during the Cold War. The level of social/scientific analysis in this paper definitely provided me ideas on how to address the more negative side of technological advancement. Bernard, William J. , and James Glanz. â€Å"Does Science Matter? † Editorial. New York Times  11 Nov. 2003. New York Times. New York Times, 11 Nov. 2003. Web. 12 Feb. 2012. ;www. newyorktimes. com;. This article is exactly what it title says, it aims to answer the question, â€Å"Does Science Matter? †. It attempts to answer this question through the implications science had on the Cold War, and ultimately daily American life. As of now, I have not found use for the information and ideas I have obtained from this article, but it definitely does give me some idea on the direction my conclusion should be pointing towards. Olwell, Russell. â€Å"Physics and Politics in Cold War America: The Two Exiles of David Bohm. † Diss. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1993.Program in Science, Technology, and Society, MIT. Web. 12 Feb. 2012. * This long essay, written by Russel Olwell, gave me a very detailed picture of the relationship held between physicists and American politicians. Understanding this relationship is key to my investigation, as it is thi s relationship that sort of glues all the other factors together. Gerovitch, Slava. ‘Mathematical Machines’ of the Cold War: Soviet Computing, American Cybernetics and Ideological Disputes in the Early 1950s. Cambridge: Dibner Institute for the History of Science and Technology, 1990. MIT. Web. 12 Feb. 2012. This document gave me a very detailed, and personal account, of the advancements the Soviets accomplished in the STEM fields, and how these advancements served as the precursor to American attempts at their own advancements. Rappert, Brian, Brian Balmer, and John Stone. â€Å"Science, Technology, and the Military: Priorities, Preoccupations, and Possibilities. † Diss. University College London, 2008. University College London. Web. 12 Feb. 2012. * This final document gave a very analytical standpoint on how science, technology, and the military shared certain, specific goals and restrictions.

Accounting Equation Paper

The accounting equation which we know as Assets equals to Liabilities plus Equity for a sole proprietorship and for a corporation we know it as Assets equals to liabilities plus stockholders & equity. Assets are company owned, liabilities are what company owes and the difference between the both of them is the owner’s equity, these three things are what the companies are measured by in the financial field. In order to understand them more clearly and how the accounting equation shows a simple way of understanding the three amounts relating to one and another, which are the assets that include cash, account receivable, equipment. Then the liabilities include notes payable, accounts payable and salaries payable. Finally, owner’s and stockholder’s equity includes common stock and retained earnings. The accounting balance sheet is one of the biggest financial statements used by accountants and business owners, these are income statements, cash flow statements, and stockholders equity statements. Balance sheet allows the creditor to see what a company owns as well as what he owes. These are very important things for someone to know for potential investors and others. So as we know, the balance sheet reflects the accounting equation, it shows the reports of company’s assets, liabilities, and owner’s and stockholders’ equity. If a company keeps their records up to date and accurate, the accounting equation will always be in balance, showing that the left side should always equal to the right side. This keeps the balance sheet balanced since all assets are financed either by equity or liabilities and also the accounting equation serves as the basis for the balance sheet. The balance sheet shows that the assets are on the debit side and liabilities and equity are on the credit side, so the accounting equation formulates in a way where the total debits should always equal the total credits. Every accounting equation has its effects on the accounting equation, because every transaction alters the components presented in the equation, in a way that the equation is satisfied after each modification.

Why Did Dinosaurs Have Feathers

Asking why certain dinosaurs had feathers is no different, in principle, from asking why fish have scales or why dogs have fur. Why should the bare epidermis of any animal possess any type of covering (or, in the case of human beings, practically no covering at all)? In order to answer this question, we have to address a deeper conundrum: what evolutionary advantage did feathers confer on dinosaurs that couldnt be accomplished with fur, or bristles or simple, reptilian scales? The Majority of Feathered Dinosaurs Were Theropods Before we start, though, its important to recognize that not all dinosaurs had feathers. The vast majority of feathered dinosaurs were theropods, a broad category that includes raptors, tyrannosaurs, ornithomimids and dino-birds, as well as the earliest dinosaurs like Eoraptor and Herrerasaurus. Furthermore, not all theropods were feathered: its a pretty sure bet that the late Jurassic Allosaurus had scaly skin, as did other large theropods like Spinosaurus and Tyrannosaurus Rex (though an increasing number of paleontologists believe that the hatchlings and juveniles of these dinosaurs may have been adorably tufted). Theropods werent the only members of the order of saurischian (lizard-hipped) dinosaurs: oddly enough, their closest relatives were the giant, lumbering, elephant-legged sauropods, which were about as different in appearance and behavior from theropods as you can possibly get! To date, theres absolutely no evidence for any feathered relatives of Brachiosaurus or Apatosaurus, and such a discovery seems extremely unlikely. The reason has to do with the differing metabolisms of theropod and sauropod dinosaurs, of which more below. What Is the Evolutionary Advantage of Feathers? Extrapolating from the example of modern birds, you might think that the primary purpose of feathers is  to sustain flight; feathers trap small pockets of air and provide the crucial lift that enables a bird to soar into the air. By all indications, though, the employment of feathers in flight is strictly secondary, one of those contingent developments for which evolution is so famous. First and foremost, the function of feathers is to provide insulation, just like the aluminum siding of a house or the polyurethane foam packed in its rafters. And why should an animal need insulation, you ask? Well, in the case of theropod dinosaurs (and modern birds), its because it possesses an endothermic (warm-blooded) metabolism. When a creature has to generate its own heat, it needs a way to retain that heat as efficiently as possible, and a coat of feathers (or fur) is one solution that has been repeatedly favored by evolution. While some mammals (like human beings and elephants) lack fur, all birds have feathers--and the insulating prowess of feathers is no better demonstrated than in flightless, aquatic birds inhabiting cold climates, i.e., penguins. Of course, this raises the question of why Allosaurus and other large theropod dinosaurs lacked feathers (or why those feathers were only present in juveniles or hatchlings). This may have something to do with the climatic conditions in the regions where these dinosaurs lived, or with a quirk in the metabolism of large theropods; we dont yet know the answer. (As for the reason sauropods lacked feathers, thats because they were almost certainly cold-blooded, and needed to efficiently absorb and radiate heat to regulate their internal body temperature. If they had been covered with feathers, they would have baked themselves from the inside out, like microwaved potatoes.) Dinosaur Feathers Were Favored by Sexual Selection When it comes to otherwise mysterious features in the animal kingdom―the long necks of sauropods, the triangular plates of stegosaurs, and, possibly, the bright feathers of theropod dinosaurs―one should never discount the power of sexual selection. Evolution is notorious for picking out seemingly random anatomical features and putting them into sexual overdrive: witness the enormous noses of male proboscis monkeys, a direct result of the fact that females of the species prefer to mate with the biggest-nosed males. Once insulating feathers had evolved in theropod dinosaurs, there was nothing to prevent sexual selection from taking over and driving the process even further. As yet, we know very little about the color of dinosaur feathers, but its a sure bet that some species sported bright greens, reds, and oranges, probably in a sexually dimorphic fashion (i.e., the males were more brightly colored than the females or vice versa). Some otherwise bald theropods may have sported tufts of feathers in odd locations, such as their forearms or hips, another means of signaling sexual availability, and some early, famous dino-birds like Archaeopteryx were equipped with dark, glossy feathers. What About Flight? Finally, we come to the behavior that most people associate with feathers: flight. Theres still a lot we dont know about the evolution of theropod dinosaurs into birds; this process may have happened multiple times during the Mesozoic Era, with only the last evolutionary wave resulting in the birds we know today. Its an almost open-and-shut case that modern birds evolved from the small, skittery, feathered dino-birds of the late Cretaceous period. But how? There are two main theories. It could be that these dinosaurs feathers provided an extra bit of lift when they were chasing prey or running away from larger predators; natural selection favored increasing amounts of lift, and finally, one lucky dinosaur achieved takeoff. In contrast to this ground-up theory, theres the less popular arboreal theory, which posits that small, tree-living dinosaurs evolved aerodynamic feathers while leaping from branch to branch. Whatever the case, the important lesson is that flight was the unintended byproduct, not the foreordained purpose, of dinosaur feathers! One new development in the feathered dinosaurs debate is the discovery of small, feathered, plant-eating ornithopods like Tianyulong and Kulindadromeus. Might this imply that ornithopods, as well as theropods, possessed warm-blooded metabolisms? Is it at least possible that birds evolved from plant-eating ornithopods, rather than meat-eating raptors? We dont know yet but count on this being an active area of research for at least the next decade.

The Insider Secret on Samples of Process Analysis Essay Exposed

The Insider Secret on Samples of Process Analysis Essay Exposed There's no need to incorporate any background in the procedure breakdown essay. There are lots more topic suggestions and totally free examples online. Time is a significant element. If at all possible, be certain to include things like a photo of the said object you're planning to use if you want to publish the said essay online. The most crucial facet of the procedure should kick start the instruction. The outline needs to be employed to supply instructions in a defined order. Crosscheck the circulation of steps to make sure you have not skipped or repeated a procedure. It is very important to continue to keep your directions or process steps as easy as possible. Samples of Process Analysis Essay: the Ultimate Convenience! All you have to have in order to quit is your intent to do it and your private will. In summary, the above mentioned process description presents the measures involved with capturing a do g in a secure and humane method. The key issue is that the procedure is described in a logical order and in a very clear way. A whole lot of the moment, it can help to break down each process into subsections. The next thing to do is to define any technical terms that are going to be utilized in the paper. Creating an outline will provide you with the opportunity to consider which steps are important and then set the steps in the right order. A process essay example can be an actual salvation if you're puzzled and can't compose a line. The part of a process analysis essay is to emphasize the procedure for performing a job, how something is accomplished or how an event occurred. Consider each one of the ingredients, staff and machinery required to create the food you're learning about. Use critical thinking skills in analyzing the entire process to make certain it's complete. Bear in mind, a process essay contains multiple elements and the secret to success is to connect t hem all. Process analysis isn't simply describing the procedure. Just like project analysis, it makes sure that the process are made to be effective. When you haven't already mastered the process, it is going to be challenging to learn and compose all at one time. Evidently, every method differs. Most of all, business analysis is essential for companies to locate solutions to problems. One of the absolute most important maintenance duties for cars is altering the oil regularly. Potential risks or side effects which are very likely to generate from the procedure ought to be started so the reader remains informed. The process essays are usually written for companies or people who need tutorials. The Number One Question You Must Ask for Samples of Process Analysis Essay Don't be afraid to find some excess assistance to turn your paper stick out! 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Let's get going with a streak of process analysis essay topics that will help you on your way to an excellent process analysis essay. New Ideas Into Samples of Process Analysis Essay Never Before Reve aled As you finalize your topic choice, don't forget to select a process you've completed many occasions and you can explain to somebody else. What's more, you're likely to want to decide on a process which you're acquainted with but that the bulk of your readers aren't. Now, there are a number of individuals who might already have a notion about what to do with them. Process analysis intends to command the people involved with the project on what things to work on, giving them a more clear idea of what things to do. All your writing ought to be simple to understand and follow for your audience. Be sure that the reader knows everything involved with the procedure you're writing about. You need to make sure your reader keeps on reading. Furthermore, don't forget to spell out why the reader is to execute each step and what the total goal is. The Fundamentals of Samples of Process Analysis Essay Revealed There isn't any particular order or rules on the best way to compose a p rocess analysis essay outline. There's no should get any arguments or supporting facts. Each procedure is unique and therefore, the essence of the procedure, and the range of steps will choose the loudness of the analysis essay. Getting mindful of the point of a process analysis is crucial to ensure the course in achieving a specific objective is well understood in order to prevent any mistake in the long-run.

Global Warming The World - 1228 Words

Global Warming- Our Disappearing World Global warming presents a huge problem in the world today, but not every scientist believes this. They think that the weather is just supposed to change naturally. If you look around there is evidence to support this theory. The sea level is rising, the global temperature has become warmer, the oceans are not as cold, and the Arctic ice has begun to disappear. Greenhouse effect and the depletion of the ozone layer also contributes to Global warming. There are many predictions about Global warming, the Greenhouse effect, sea level rising. Scientist have various predictions on how life on Earth will change by the year 2100. Background In the 1700’s the Industrial Revolution which began in†¦show more content†¦Changes in the Earth’s climate are now visible and scientists are trying to predict what the future holds, and what can be done about it. Predictions In the journal article written by H.L Miller, the talks about how there will be a greater amount of Greenhouse gas condensed and released into the atmosphere. Some scientist believe that the temperature around the world will rise 2 °F up to 11.5 °F by the year 2100. This will mean that global temperature will have doubled over the last hundred years. The higher volume of Greenhouse gas being released into the air will increase the global rise in temperature (Ping). Studies show that the southern United States will have an estimated 60 days when the temperature reaches above 90 °F, and by the end of this century the south will experience temperatures of 90  °F and above for 150 days (Karl). Future prediction on the weather will change and it depends on the region as well as the season. S.D Solomon is a co writer for IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and he predicts that some regions may have less precipitation, some may have more precipitation, and some may have little or no ch ange. â€Å"The amount of rain falling in heavy precipitation events is likely to increase in most regions, while storm tracks are projected to shift poleward†(Solomon). The amount of

Non-Verbal Barriers in Business-Free-Samples-Myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Non-Verbal Barriers in Business Communication. Answer: Introduction The communication is an integral part of the business processes and they determine the level of success or failure of an organization (DeVito 2015). The process of negotiating, exchanging and mediating the differences through the processes of languages and non-verbal gestures is known as communication (DeVito 2015). However, there are different forms of communication barriers that prevent the sender or the receiver to understand the messages of each other. The barriers prevent the individuals to properly send the messages and interpret the same. The barriers may be related to internal or external based on the different circumstances (DeVito 2015). The barriers can be both in verbal communication as well as non-verbal communication. This paper would discuss the various nonverbal barriers that take place in the business communication process. The research topic is non verbal barriers in business communication. The non-verbal elements are important substitutes for words that convey great meaning in business communications. The assignment wishes to identify the various components that inhibit the non-verbal communication process in business scenario. There are several business issues that are faced by the companies, the root cause of them lies in the improper non-verbal communication. There are several instances of misunderstandings and conflicts in the team due to inadequate or improper non-verbal cues. This is the reason that the nonverbal communication systems should be given emphasis. Any probable barriers that prevent the communication process (especially non-verbal communication) would be explored. The thesis statement of the research would To explore the different non-verbal barriers in the communication process and develop suitable solutions. Conceptual Framework As opined by Surkamp (2014), the non-verbal communication is often the neglected mode of communication in the organizations. It has been opined that the greater awareness as well as knowledge of the non-verbal modes of communication would help in greater non-verbal communication modes. When a person is interacting with another, then he is giving unlimited signals in an unconscious manner. The gestures, postures and the eye contact are important parameters that should be kept in mind when engaging in communication. The non-verbal communication takes place even after the actual speaking has ceased (Broadbent 2013). This kind of communication takes place in a silent manner when both the parties are not communicating. The communication has become the backbone of business and it is considered as an art (Broadbent 2013). Good communication involves the process of transferring, analyzing and comprehending the messages embedded in the message (Klitmller and Lauring 2013). However, good communication involves a lot of efforts that is often missing. The mere speaking of words is not enough for making good communication and there is lot of non-verbal processes involved in it. As stated by Broadbent (2013), the nonverbal communication is an important attribute of the modern business. They improve the clarity, trust and rapport between the team members in an organization. There are different types of non-verbal communication that are increasingly used in business communication- Facial expressions- The human face is considered as one of the most expressive tools and they usually display variety of emotions (White and Gardner 2013). There can be expressions of anger, sadness, fear, surprise and others. Gestures- The communication is affected by the way people walk, sit or keep their head while talking. The body gestures and postures are important in understanding the way communication is being done. Eye-contact- This is considered as one of the most important parameters in the non-verbal communication in which there is significant exchange of information without the use of words (White and Gardner 2013). One must know how to maintain proper eye-contact while maintaining the flow of communication. Non-verbal communication is considered as the process of transferring the important messages without using any sounds or words (Broadbent 2013). This kind of communication is mainly done with the help of body language, eye contact, gestures, and voice tone. However, there are lots of barriers that take place in this kind of communication- Negative body language There are instances when there is negative body language, which turns off the receiver (White and Gardner 2013). The speaker may not be able to display a positive body language and he may stoop, bend or sit in excessive relaxed manner. This can take the listeners attention away from the communication and they may miss the real meaning of the ideas being conveyed by the speaker (White and Gardner 2013). The body language may not be proper, which may distract the receivers and may miss the crux of the message. Not proper eye contact This is one of the most common modes of communication barriers that take place in the business organizations (Adler, Rodman and DuPr 2016). The sender may not maintain proper eye to eye contact with the team and this may distract the team (Adler, Rodman and DuPr 2016). This would make the employees confused and also the credibility of the supervisor would be questioned. When the supervisor is giving a speech, and fails to maintain proper eye contact with the audience, then there would be no impact on them(White and Gardner 2013). It is important equal eye contact with all the members of the audience so that they are interested in the actual content of the speech. Inappropriate gestures When there is proper communication between multiple members of the organization, then there is bound to be some improper gestures between them (Burgoon, Guerrero and Floyd 2016). The speaker may roll or flash eyes that may appear improper. He may also keep his arms crossed or keep his legs crossed which are considered as major turn-offs for the listeners. This may also hamper the listening process and the audience may only partially listen to the speaker (Burgoon, Guerrero and Floyd 2016). A poor personal care is major cause of distraction in which the audience would be unable to concentrate on the main message. There are instances when the speaker slouches that has a negative effect on the audiences, which makes the communication process not so sound (Burgoon, Guerrero and Floyd 2016). Neutral facial expression In case of non-verbal communication, it is important that the audience is greeted with appropriate facial expression of the speaker (Argyle 2013). If the speaker is unable to give the suitable facial expression, then the audience would not be interested in listening to the words of the speaker. Rude tone of voice Everyone loves to hear polite and soothing voice and if there is any deviation from the same, then they would lose interest in the speakers words(Burgoon, Guerrero and Floyd 2016). The harsh tone of voice is detrimental in proper communication and the audience would stop listening to the content of the speech. Fig: Conceptual framework in non-verbal communication Source: Created by author Research Design The research design for this kind of research is aimed at understanding the actual barriers that are faced in non-verbal communication. The research method should yield the maximum data which would help in validating the research topic. The research design is considered as the blueprint of the research, which would help in the analysis of the conceptual facts. Research Approach The research approach followed is the inductive research approach in which there is no formulation of hypothesis and the research objectives needs to be fulfilled by the process. The main purpose of data collection for this research is to explore the various nonverbal barrier in communication and identify any patterns in it (Burgoon, Guerrero and Floyd 2016). This research would be done with the help of observation and particular patterns of non-verbal barriers would be identified. This research would be based on the theoretical synthesis of the available data on non-verbal barriers in communication. Research Strategy The research strategy would be mixed research approach in which there is a combination of qualitative research as well as quantitative research. The qualitative research is inductive, which emphasizes on the fact that data analysis needs to be done based on the type of data of collected data (Burgoon, Guerrero and Floyd 2016). A methodological approach would be followed which allows for greater flexibility in the case of qualitative research. The quantitative method would be based on the data collection from actual participants. Data Collection There would be two types of data that would be collected for this research. The qualitative data would be collected with the help of study of online documents, international journals, newsletters, magazines and others. The quantitative data analysis would be done with the help of primary questionnaires which would be collected from 5 multinational companies. A group of 40 employees would be selected from this 5 companies. A total of 200 employees would be selected. They would be asked their views on various non-verbal communication barriers they have faced in their professional life. Data Analysis The data analysis is concerned with the transforming of the collected data into valuable information so that meaningful information can be derived from them. The main mode of data analysis was Microsoft Excel. The various qualitative sources of data are being analyzed and presented for deducing conclusions. Findings The findings of the research show that there are several non-verbal communications barriers that are faced by individuals. They often face physical barriers and they are often unable to apprehend the non-verbal postures as well as gestures. A large percentage of the respondents feel that they are not able to maintain proper eye contact and hence they are unable to communicate fully. A fairly large number of participants feel that they are concentrating more on the slouched position of their lecturer or supervisor and are unable to interpret their key messages. Conclusion The business communication is one of the most important processes that is important for long term business success. There are several communication barriers that are faced by the organizational leaders. The rigidness to the organizational charts or the existence of physical barriers have always created issues for the management. The communication problems are an increasing phenomenon in the modern-day workplaces. The communication issues can be both observed in verbal as well as nonverbal modes. There are several nonverbal communication problems such as neutral facial expression, improper body language, no eye contact, rude voice and so on. There are several skills that needs to be imbibed for being an excellent communicator. This paper has focused on the probable non-verbal communications and sought to propose some suitable solutions for same. References Adler, R., Rodman, G.R. and DuPr, A., 2016.Understanding human communication. Oxford University Press. Argyle, M., 2013.Bodily communication. Routledge. Benyon, J. and Dunkerley, D., 2014.Globalization: the reader. Routledge. Bovee, C.L. and Thill, J.V., 2012.Excellence in business communication. Pearson Higher Ed. Broadbent, D.E., 2013.Perception and communication. Elsevier. Burgoon, J.K., Guerrero, L.K. and Floyd, K., 2016.Nonverbal communication. Routledge. Clampitt, P.G., 2012.Communicating for managerial effectiveness. Sage. Daim, T.U., Ha, A., Reutiman, S., Hughes, B., Pathak, U., Bynum, W. and Bhatla, A., 2012. Exploring the communication breakdown in global virtual teams.International Journal of Project Management,30(2), pp.199-212. DeVito, J.A., 2015.The interpersonal communication book. Pearson. French, R., 2015.Cross-cultural management in work organisations. Kogan Page Publishers. Grunig, J.E. ed., 2013.Excellence in public relations and communication management. Routledge. Guang, T. and Trotter, D., 2012. Key issues in cross-cultural business communication: Anthropological approaches to international business.African Journal of Business Management,6(22), p.6456. Guffey, M.E. and Loewy, D., 2012.Essentials of business communication. Cengage Learning. Jandt, F.E., 2012.An introduction to intercultural communication: Identities in a global community. Sage Publications. Klitmller, A. and Lauring, J., 2013. When global virtual teams share knowledge: Media richness, cultural difference and language commonality.Journal of World Business,48(3), pp.398-406. Levy, F. and Murnane, R.J., 2012.The new division of labor: How computers are creating the next job market. Princeton University Press. Samovar, L.A., Porter, R.E., McDaniel, E.R. and Roy, C.S., 2014.Intercultural communication: A reader. Cengage Learning. Tang, N. and Wang, Y., 2017. Cross?Cultural Teams.The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of the Psychology of Team Working and Collaborative Processes, pp.219-242. Thill, J.V. and Bove, C.L., 2013.Excellence in business communication. Pearson. Thomas, D.C. and Peterson, M.F., 2017.Cross-cultural management: Essential concepts. Sage Publications. Tubbs, S.L., 2012. Human communication: Principles and contexts. White, J. and Gardner, J., 2013.The Classroom X-Factor: The Power of Body Language and Non-verbal Communication in Teaching. Routledge. Surkamp, C., 2014. Non-Verbal Communicatio

Responses of Children with Chronically Ill Siblings Essay Example

Responses of Children with Chronically Ill Siblings Paper Chronic illness to any of the member of the family actually affects the whole family. And when a child diagnosed is diagnosed with a chronic illness, it has its effect not only on the suffering child but the entire family as a whole which includes his/her siblings. Though the children in most of the cases have been found to adapt their siblings’ chronic illness but the complete picture indicates that they have to experience stress and psychological problems (Association for Children with Disability, 2003). They have to suffer changes in the form of various aspects of life beginning with relationship with their parents in form of both quantity and quality, especially the mother who is so much preoccupied with ill child that there occurs an unintentional negligence in the amount of support to be provided to the other children (Cloues, 2006). The family being a system tends to maintain a sense of stability while resisting forces or changes that could cause a disruption to this stability. Chronic illness to a member especially child is a major disruption of family with stability being the first victim with later effects on other children (Cloues, 2006). In the United States, number of children suffering from chronic illness ranges between 4 and 7 million and about one-half to one million of them are actually patients of severe chronic childhood disability (Newacheck Halfon, 1998; Patterson, 1988). The extremely high variation of data makes way for something between 5% and 40% of children suffer from a chronic illness (Newacheck Halfon, 1998; Perrin MacLean, 1988). The variation itself is a proof of underestimation and the actual number might be much higher if we go along with the definition by P. D. Williams (1997), according to which â€Å"chronic illness is an ailment with a duration of 6 months or longer showing little change or slow progression† (p. 132). We will write a custom essay sample on Responses of Children with Chronically Ill Siblings specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Responses of Children with Chronically Ill Siblings specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Responses of Children with Chronically Ill Siblings specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer With the presence of a child with some chronic illness, the circumstance under which the family grows is quite unfamiliar. In the solution phase while coping with the problem, a process of change begun within the family with varying emotional responses effecting considerable sibling adjustment to manage the influx of strong and conflicting emotions (Association for Children with Disability, 2003). Background A siblings response to growing up in a family that has a child with a disability needs to be understood in their context of their stage of development. Children respond to the events of day-to-day life based on their stage of physical, mental and emotional development. Children learn from their environment and through their relationship with their parents and siblings. The sibling relationship, which is life long, has an important influence on the development of a persons identity. In later life, it can be a source of mutual support, depending on the quality of the early relationship. C. Purpose D. Research Question II. Review of the Literature III. Methodology Quantitative Reviews of the Literature A recent methodological advance to resolve discrepant findings across studies is meta-analysis. This quantitative review strategy is employed to assess factors both substantive and methodological that produce inconsistencies across studies (Schmidt, 1992). Howe (1993) employed a vote-count meta analysis strategy to review 21 studies with control groups or normative reference groups that examined siblings of children with chronic illness. A vote count meta-analysis is a simple tabulation of studies by their outcomes. Howe concluded that siblings of children with a chronic illness were at higher risk than other children for psychological problems, that neurological conditions produced more negative effects than nonneurological conditions, and that negative effects were most often manifested as internalizing behaviors. Summers, White, and Summers (1994) conducted a vote-count meta-analysis of 13 studies of siblings of children with a chronic illness or an intellectual disability. These 13 studies were assessed for their methodological quality and research methodology, and study results were categorized as positive, negative, or nonsignificant. These researchers concluded that being the sibling of a child with a disability had both negative and positive consequences, that parent surveys and direct observation generated more negative findings than child self-reports, and that higher quality studies found fewer differences between siblings and comparison samples. Like Howe’s (1993) review of the literature, the Summers et al. meta-analysis was constrained by the limitations to the vote-count review strategy: no estimation of effect size magnitude, no consideration of sample size, and no mechanism for evaluating systematically the impact of moderator variables. A recent meta-analysis of 25 studies and 79 effect sizes from the literature on the siblings of individuals with intellectual disabilities (Rossiter Sharpe, 2001) revealed a small negative effect for having a sibling with an intellectual disability that could not be attributed to a publication bias or some other artifact. This negative effect was most pronounced for measures of psychological functioning, especially depression, and adult reports versus child self reports. This meta-analysis pertains to the siblings of children with a chronic illness. Based on the findings from traditional literature reviews and the vote count meta-analyses, a negative effect was anticipated for having a sibling with a chronic illness. A number of hypotheses based on methodological and substantive issues were then derived. Methodological Issues. The first methodological hypothesis was that studies published more recently would show fewer negative and more positive outcomes than earlier studies. Lamorey (1999) observed more recent studies to show fewer negative effects and more variation in outcomes. A second methodological hypothesis was that more negative effects would be found for parental reports than sibling self reports (Summers et al. , 1994). The third methodological hypothesis was that studies employing normative data for comparison to the sibling samples would produce negative effects of greater magnitude than found for studies that employed matched control groups (Lavigne Faier-Routman, 1992). Substantive Issues. A number of hypotheses were also made that related to substantive variables. First, a larger negative effect was expected for internalizing over externalizing behaviors. Howe (1993) found four of eleven studies of siblings of children with chronic illness showed a negative effect for internalizing behavior compared to only one of eight studies for externalizing behaviors. Second, sibling outcomes were anticipated to vary by the chronic disease and its features. One view is many chronic conditions of childhood produce similar psychological and behavioral effects (Vessey Mebane, 2000). Childhood chronic illnesses, however, vary on dimensions such as etiology, age of onset, impact on functioning, and prognosis (see Lobato, Faust, Spirito, 1988). More severe chronic illnesses place greater restrictions on the child’s activities (Newacheck Taylor, 1992), and perhaps greater demands on parents, siblings, the family system, and the community (Patterson, 1988). Third, the interaction of sibling gender and birth order was considered (Howe, 1993; Williams, 1997). Method Fifty published studies from 1976 to 2000, representing over twenty-five hundred siblings of children with chronic illness, were identified from computer searches of databases such as PsycLit and MEDLINE, using key words such as â€Å"siblings† and â€Å"illness,† from previous reviews of the literature and from the reference sections of located studies. Excluded from the meta-analysis were case studies, nonempirical or qualitative studies, or studies without an appropriate comparison group or normative data. Studies were also excluded that evaluated the reactions of healthy siblings to the illness or death of a brother or sister or pertained to the adult siblings of individuals with a chronic illness. Studies that employed no comparison group but that provided normative data were included in this meta-analysis. Unpublished studies were not sought for inclusion in this meta-analysis. First, it is almost impossible to collect all published studies in all languages, much less all unpublished studies. Second, the peer review process for published studies serves as an albeit imperfect form of quality control. Third, there is evidence that publication bias is less serious than once feared (Sharpe, 1997). Publication bias, the socalled â€Å"file-drawer† problem, is the belief that the failure to include unpublished studies in the metaanalysis might inflate the magnitude of effect sizes, given that published studies may overrepresent statistically significant findings. To ascertain the likelihood of such a publication bias, statistical and graphical analyses of effect sizes were conducted. Studies by the same author(s) that appeared to examine the same participants (e. g. , Breslau Prabucki, 1987; Breslau, Weitzman, Messenger, 1981) were treated as a single study for the purposes of this meta-analysis. Three of the primary studies (Faux, 1991; Stawski, Averbach, Barasch, Lerner, Zimin, 1997; Wood et al. , 1988) provided separate data for the siblings of children with distinctly different chronic illnesses. These sub samples were treated as separate studies. In total, 51 study-level effect size statistics were evaluated. Each study was coded for method of data collection (child self-report, parent report, or direct observation), chronic illness, age of siblings, gender of siblings, number of sibling and comparison participants, and dependent measure category: psychological functioning (e. g. , Internalizing subscales of the Child Behavior Checklist), self concept (e. g. , Piers-Harris Self-Concept scale), caretaking, sibling relationship, peer activities (e. g. , Social Competence subscale of the Child Behavior Checklist), cognitive functioning (e. g. , intelligence test scores), and cognitive development (e. g. , school performance). Parent and teacher reports were combined because only five studies asked teachers to complete a dependent measure. Four of the five comparisons based on teacher reports were not statistically significant. All codings were completed by the first author and checked independently by the second author. Disagreements were resolved by discussion. Effect Size Calculations. An effect size statistic d (Hedges Olkin, 1985) was calculated for each relevant outcome by subtracting the mean score for comparison participants from the mean score for siblings with a chronic illness and by dividing that sum by a pooled standard deviation. Normative data provided by the primary authors in the published studies were substituted for data from comparison participants when the latter were not provided. If means and standard deviations were not reported, effect sizes were calculated from summary statistics (e. g. , t statistics, p values) by employing the metaanalysis software package D-Stat (Johnson, 1989). Effect sizes were weighted by the reciprocal of their variance as recommended by Hedges and Olkin (1985). When no data were reported in a primary study but the difference between the sibling and comparison groups was said to be nonsignificant, an effect size of zero was recorded. For all analyses, negative effect sizes reflect less positive functioning for siblings of children with a chronic illness relative to comparison children or normative data. Effect sizes from the same study, chronic illness, dependent measure category, and method of data collection were combined and averaged. The resulting set of 103 outcome-level effect sizes was evaluated for their statistical significance (95% confidence interval around zero) and their homogeneity (Hedges Olkin, 1985). The effect sizes from the 51 studies were also examined where appropriate to do so. The overall test for homogeneity (QT) assesses whether a set of effect sizes is internally consistent. For most meta-analyses, homogeneity of the set of effect sizes is not achieved without some combination of outlier analysis and partitioning of effect sizes into smaller clusters on the basis of moderator variables. The identification and removal of outliers are appropriate if homogeneity can be achieved by deleting no more than 20% of the effect sizes (Hedges Olkin, 1985). Regardless of the outcome of the overall test of homogeneity, however, tests of moderator variables are justified when based on theoretical considerations (see Hall Rosenthal, 1991). After the overall test for homogeneity, effect size clusters were created on the basis of moderator variables (e. g. , method of data collection). The homogeneity of effect sizes within clusters (QW) and differences between mean effect sizes across clusters (QB) were calculated. A significant QB value implies differences in the mean effect sizes associated with the effect size clusters. Interpretation of such an outcome is less clear if there are significant differences in effect sizes within one or more clusters (the QW statistic for each cluster). When moderator variables were continuous (e. g. , sample size), correlations between effect sizes and the moderator variables were calculated. Results The results are divided into three sections. The first section reports on tests of effect sizes: tests of the magnitude of mean effect sizes, tests for publication bias, and tests of homogeneity of effect sizes. The second section examines the role of methodological moderator variables, specifically, year of publication, method of data collection, and comparison group versus normative data. The third section considers substantive moderator variables, specifically, categories of dependent measures, differences by chronic illness, and effects of gender, birth order, and age of sibling.